MM%F? 


THE  WILD  TURKEY 


BY 


JOHN  T.  ZIMMER 

Assistant  Curator  of  Birds 


***# 


Zoological  Leaflet  No.  6 

Published  by 
FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

CHICAGO 

1924 


>-    id 

UJ    E 

*-  5 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Department  op  Zoology 

Chicago,  1923 
Leaflet  Number  6 


The  Wild  Turkey 


One  of  the  first  forms  of  wild  life  to  attract  atten- 
tion, in  the  early  days  of  exploration  and  settlement  in 
America,  was  the  Wild  Turkey.  This  splendid  bird 
once  ranged  in  abundance  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to 
the  Dakotas,  and  from  Maine  and  southern  Ontario  to 
southern  Mexico.  It  was  found  in  every  state  in  the 
Union  except  Washington,  Oregon,  California,  Nevada, 
Utah,  Idaho,  Wyoming  and  Montana.  Early  in  the 
history  of  the  colonization,  however,  the  turkey  began 
its  retreat  and  gradually  retired  to  the  wilderness  in 
the  more  southern  and  western  portions  of  its  range, 
a  retreat  which  has  gone  on  steadily  since  then,  with 
varying  rapidity. 

The  early  explorers  and  colonists  were  unanimous 
in  speaking  of  the  tremendous  numbers  of  this  magnifi- 
cent species.  When  Francisco  Fernandez  reached  the 
northern  coast  of  Yucatan  in  1517,  he  found  great 
numbers  of  turkeys  domesticated  by  the  natives,  as 
did  Grijalva  farther  west  in  1518,  and  Cortez  a  little 
later.  The  colonists  in  New  England  found  a  bountiful 
supply  of  these  birds  in  the  forests,  and  the  use  to 
which  they  put  them  is  well  exemplified  by  the  promi- 
nent part  the  turkey  plays  in  our  Thanksgiving  fes- 
tivals today,  a  role  which  has  come  down  to  us  from  the 
first  Thanksgiving  of  those  early  times.  The  French 
"voyageurs,"  in  penetrating  the  western  wilds,  dis- 
covered the  Wild  Turkey  in  great  numbers  and  re- 
corded their  gratefulness  for  the  welcome  food  supply 
thus  furnished.     The  accounts  of  Capt.  John  Smith, 

[73] 


2  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Roger  Williams,  Father  Marquette  and  La  Salle, 
among  many  others,  show  clearly  that  the  Wild  Turkey 
must  have  existed  in  countless  numbers. 

As  early  as  1760,  a  change  began  to  appear  in 
these  accounts,  especially  in  those  relating  to  the  north- 
eastern portions  of  the  country.  In  this  year  there 
was  written  an  article  relating  to  southern  Canada  in 
which  the  writer  remarks  that  turkeys  were  to  be 
found  "except  in  the  neighborhood  of  plantations."  In 
1765,  a  writer  in  Maryland  stated  that  Wild  Turkeys, 
formerly  abundant,  were  then  rarely  seen.  In  1770 
the  species  was  reported  as  very  scarce  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. By  1792,  in  Connecticut,  the  turkey  had  retired 
to  the  inland  mountainous  region,  while  in  1813  there 
was  given  what  appears  to  be  the  last  record  of  its 
occurrence  for  the  entire  state.  In  1842  an  author  re- 
ports the  species  as  "exceedingly  rare  in  all  parts  of 
New  England." 

In  the  western  states,  the  turkey  held  its  own  for  a 
longer  time,  owing  to  the  slower  development  of  that 
region,  and  in  1846  great  numbers  were  still  reported 
from  the  bottom  lands  of  the  upper  Mississippi.  In 
1892,  however,  it  had  almost  totally  disappeared  from 
Minnesota.  In  1893  it  was  given  as  rare,  if  at  all 
present,  in  Michigan.  In  1897  the  same  was  true  of 
Indiana.  In  1903  it  was  all  but  extinct  in  Ohio;  in 
1907,  practically  extinct  in  Iowa;  in  1915,  extinct  in 
Nebraska ;  in  1920  extinct  in  South  Dakota.  The  exact 
date  of  disappearance  in  these  states  is  uncertain.  In 
Illinois  it  was  thought  by  Ridgway  to  be  extinct  in 
1913,  but  more  recently  it  has  been  found  to  occur 
sparingly  in  extreme  southern  portions  of  the  state. 
In  Pennsylvania  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  species  still 
occurs  in  some  numbers,  locally,  for  as  late  as  1913 
the  game  warden  of  that  state  reported  733  Wild  Tur- 
keys as  having  been  killed  by  sportsmen  during  one 

[74] 


The  Wild  Turkey  3 

season.  Farther  south  and  west  there  are  numerous 
localities  in  which  the  birds  are  still  common,  and  rec- 
ords are  given  more  or  less  regularly  from  southern 
Missouri,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  Colorado, 
Texas,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  Florida 
and  some  other  adjoining  states.  Even  in  these,  how- 
ever, the  distribution  is  purely  local,  and  the  turkeys 
are  confined  to  suitable  localities  in  restricted  areas. 

It  is  unknown  whence  came  the  actual  specimen 
from  which  the  first  recognized  description  of  the  spe- 
cies was  written.  It  has  been  assumed  that  the  bird 
was  a  domesticated  one,  descended  from  the  Mexican 
race.  It  is  certain  that  the  domestic  bird,  today,  shows 
much  more  resemblance  to  the  form  found  in  eastern 
Mexico  than  to  those  of  other  regions.  The  turkeys 
found  by  the  Spaniards  in  Mexico,  already  domesti- 
cated by  the  Aztecs,  were  taken  back  to  Spain,  and  by 
1530  were  well  established  in  the  poultry  yards  of  that 
country.  From  Spain  they  were  carried  all  over  Eu- 
rope and  even,  in  time,  found  their  way  to  the  colonies 
in  New  England  where  they  may  have  been  crossed 
with  the  resident  form  of  the  forests,  also  occasionally 
domesticated.  Some  of  the  resultant  mixed  breed  of 
New  England  may  have  been  carried  to  Europe,  but 
it  is  doubtful  if  one  of  these  birds  was  the  basis  for 
the  original  scientific  descriptions  which  apply  too 
well  to  the  east-Mexican  race. 

The  source  of  the  name  "turkey"  is  likewise  in 
doubt.  Certain  early  writers  say  that  the  bird  received 
its  name  from  Turkey,  from  whence  it  was  supposed 
to  have  come,  but  there  is  little  evidence  to  show  that 
there  was  ever  much  doubt  as  to  the  country  of  the  tur- 
key's origin.  For  some  time,  the  species  was  confused 
with  the  Guinea-fowl  which  was,  likewise,  called  "tur- 
key," and  both  birds  were  classed  as  pheasant,  peacock 
and  even  Guinea-fowl,  until  the  various  forms  involved 

[76] 


4  Field  Museum  op  Natural  History 

were  gradually  classified  properly.  Another  explana- 
tion of  the  origin  of  the  name  is  sought  in  certain  of 
the  bird's  notes  which  resemble  the  syllables,  "turk- 
turk-turk — ,"  from  which  the  name  "turkey"  came  to 
be  applied  to  the  bird  itself,  and  this  explanation  is 
probably  the  true  one. 

The  Aztecs  called  the  gobblers  "Huexolotl"  and 
the  hens  "Cihuatotolin."  The  northern  tribes  named 
them  variously,  as  "Neyhom"  (Natick),  "Tschikenum" 
or  "Tschukinuuna"  (Delawares),  "Weenecobbo" 
( Chippewa) <  "Ma-yoka"  (Biloxi),  "Pah-quun"  (Nanti- 
coke),  "Bloen"  (Lenape),  "Zizika"  (Omahas)  and 
"Fakit"  (Choctaw).  These  northern  tribes  did  not 
commonly  domesticate  the  turkey  as  did  the  Aztecs, 
but  made  use  of  the  wild  birds  which  they  hunted  reg- 
ularly. The  plumage  was  manufactured  into  robes  and 
blankets  by  a  process  of  twisting  each  feather  sep- 
arately into  strands  of  wild  hemp  which  were  then 
woven  into  a  compact  fabric. 

The  Wild  Turkey  is  a  handsome  bird,  its  glossy 
plumage  mostly  greenish  bronze  with  gold  and  cop- 
pery reflections,  catching  every  turn  of  sunlight  and 
shining  like  polished  metal.  Each  feather  of  the  neck, 
breast,  flanks  and  upper  back  is  squarely  shorn  and 
tipped  with  a  band  of  velvety  black  which  serves  but 
to  accentuate  the  glowing  sheen  of  the  remainder. 
The  wings  are  blackish  brown,  crossed  with  bands  of 
white.  The  head  and  upper  neck  are  nearly  bare,  the 
skin  rich  purple  or  blue  in  color,  sparsely  set  with 
rows  of  hair-like  feathers.  From  the  throat  depends 
a  wattle-like  fold,  and  from  the  crown  hangs  a  pencil- 
like projection  of  the  skin,  set  with  bristles  and  tipped 
with  a  slender  tuft  of  the  same.  From  the  center  of 
the  breast  springs  a  bunch  of  wiry  feathers  which 
trails  downward,  and  in  some  superb  examples, 
reaches    the     ground     between     the     owner's     feet. 

'  [76] 


The  Wild  Turkey  5 

The  feet  are  light  purple,  armed  with  short  but 
heavy  spurs.  In  general  appearance  the  bird  thus 
resembles  a  fine  example  of  the  domestic  turkey 
although  there  are  certain  differences  which  dis- 
tinguish the  two  forms.  Throughout  most  of 
the  United  States,  except  in  the  extreme  south- 
west, the  most  striking  difference  is  in  the  color 
of  the  rump,  upper  tail  coverts  and  tail  which 
are  rich  chestnut  in  the  wild  bird  but  white  in  the 
domesticated  one.  This  characteristic  shows  the  rela- 
tionship of  the  barnyard  fowl  to  the  wild  bird  of  east- 
ern Mexico  which  presents  the  same  color  phase.  Other 
differences,  however,  are  noticeable  without  respect 
to  locality.  The  domestic  bird  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  wild  one,  the  naked  skin  of  the  head  and  feet 
often  has  faded  into  red  and  even  orange,  and  the 
wattle  of  the  "gobbler"  has  developed  into  an  enormous 
dewlap  which  is  never  so  pronounced  in  the  wild  form. 
These  characters  are  of  principal  importance  in  the 
case  of  the  domestic  strain  known  as  the  Bronze 
Turkey  which  has  descended  with  least  change  from 
its  wild  ancestor  and  which  is  most  likely  to  be  con- 
fused with  it.  There  are,  in  addition,  other  strains 
of  the  domestic  bird  which  are  so  widely  different 
from  any  of  the  wild  individuals  that  there  is  little 
doubt  as  to  their  character,  even  at  a  glance.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  Bronze  Turkey,  the  names  of  these 
varieties  are  based,  for  the  most  part,  on  their  dis- 
tinguishing colors,  and  a  Black,  White,  Buff  or  Blue- 
gray  Turkey  need  not  be  described  further,  while 
the  Narragansett  breed  could  be  characterized  as  the 
Steel-gray  Turkey. 

On  the  other  hand  there  is  a  gradual  but  decided 
change  in  coloration  exhibited  by  the  Wild  Turkey 
from  one  end  of  its  range  to  the  other,  from  the  Mexi- 
can to  the  New  England  forms.     On  account  of  this 

[77] 


6  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

variation,  naturalists  have  divided  the  species  into  sev- 
eral subspecies  or  geographical  races,  each  of  which 
is  distinct  from  the  others  and  occupies  a  separate  area 
of  distribution,  although  the  races  intergrade  where 
the  areas  meet.  At  present,  six  of  these  races  are  rec- 
ognized and  named.  The  typical  race  or  true  Wild 
Turkey  (Meleagris  gallopavo  gallopavo) ,  is  character- 
ized by  having  the  feathers  of  the  lower  back,  rump, 
upper  tail  coverts  and  tail  tipped  with  nearly  pure 
white.  It  is  confined  to  the  humid  valleys  and  lower 
hillsides  of  eastern  Mexico,  and  does  not  reach  the 
United  States.  To  the  northward,  in  the  states  of 
Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon  and  Tamaulipas,  this  form  in- 
tergrades  with  the  Rio  Grande  Turkey  (Meleagris  g. 
intermedia)  which  crosses  the  Mexican  boundary  and 
ranges  into  middle  northern  Texas.  In  this  form,  the 
white  of  the  posterior  upper  parts  and  tail  is  replaced 
by  ochraceous  buff.  In  northern  Texas  and  extending 
over  almost  all  of  the  whole  eastern  range  of  the  spe- 
cies is  found  the  North  American  Wild  Turkey  (Mele- 
agris g.  silvestris)  in  which  the  buff  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Turkey  is  deepened  into  rich  chestnut.  In  southern 
Florida  is  found  a  very  similar  race,  the  Florida  Tur- 
key (Meleagris  g.  osceola),  which  differs  from  the 
northern  race  by  having  the  white  cross  bars  on  the 
wing  quills  narrower.  In  the  mountains  of  western 
Mexico,  on  the  high  plateau  region,  occurs  the  Mexi- 
can Wild  Turkey  (Meleagris  g.  mexicana),  in  which 
the  tail,  upper  tail-coverts  and  lower  rump  are  white, 
as  in  the  east  Mexican  bird,  while  the  lower  back  is 
rich  black  without  pale  tips  to  the  feathers.  This  form 
does  not  cross  into  the  United  States,  but  is  replaced 
in  western  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  southern 
Colorado  by  Merriam's  Turkey  (Meleagris  g.  merri- 
ami),  in  which  the  lower  back  is  also  black  with  the 
succeeding  upper  parts  broadly  tipped  with  pale  buff 

[78] 


The  Wild  Turkey  7 

or  buffy  white.  Six  races  or  subspecies  are  thus  dis- 
tinguished throughout  the  range  of  the  species,  four 
of  which  occur  in  the  United  States. 

The  differences  by  which  the  subspecies  of  the 
Wild  Turkey  are  separated  are,  as  may  be  noted,  modi- 
fications of  certain  colors  and  markings.  Although 
constant  in  each  locality,  they  show  an  intergradation 
where  the  ranges  of  the  various  forms  adjoin,  and  the 
birds  found  in  the  area  of  intergradation  possess  an 
intermediate  character  which  often  renders  them 
difficult  to  classify.  In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said 
that  these  differences  have  arisen  naturally  through 
a  gradual  modification  of  the  birds  in  each  of  various 
areas,  from  causes  operating  over  a  long  period  of 
time.  The  exact  causes  in  each  case  may  never  be 
known,  but  the  slight  "continuous"  variations  are 
hereditary  and  are  passed  on  from  generation  to 
generation.  This  is  at  least  one  of  the  ways  in  which 
new  species  are  produced  in  nature  by  gradual  evolu- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  various  strains  of  the 
domestic  turkey  have  been  produced  through  the 
agency  of  man,  from  a  second  type  of  variation  known 
as  "discontinuous"  or  as  "mutation."  Such  variations, 
which  are  often  strikingly  distinct,  are  seldom  seen 
in  nature  because  they  are  quickly  lost  through  in- 
terbreeding. In  domesticated  animals  and  plants, 
however,  man  is  able  to  detect  these  "mutants"  or 
"sports"  as  they  appear  and,  by  mating  selected  in- 
dividuals, can  perpetuate  the  desired  features.  In 
this  manner  he  has  produced  the  peculiar  varieties 
of  the  domestic  turkey,  black,  white,  buff  and 
others,  none  of  which  have  counterparts  in  the  races 
of  the  wild  form. 

The  Wild  Turkey  is  essentially  a  bird  of  the  wood- 
lands, seldom  wandering  far  from  the  protection  of 
groves  and  thickets  and  preferring  a  mixed  growth 

T79] 


8  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

in  swampy  regions  where  a  variety  of  food  and  facility 
for  concealment  are  offered.  It  is  irregularly  migra- 
tory and  formerly  was  much  more  so  than  it  is  at  pres- 
ent, when  its  haunts  are  more  or  less  encircled  by  large 
cultivated  areas.  In  early  times,  when  food  became 
scarce  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Turkeys'  range, 
especially  in  the  autumn,  the  birds  would  wander  long 
distances  to  the  richer  bottom  lands  of  the  Mississippi 
and  other  river  valleys  until  they  reached  a  region 
where  food  became  more  plentiful.  This  gypsy  migra- 
tion was  performed  by  flocks,  numbering  sometimes 
a  hundred  individuals,  of  which  the  males  always 
formed  a  separate  body.  The  females  and  young  re- 
mained apart  in  family  groups  or  composite  flocks, 
but  all  moved  forward  in  the  same  direction.  They 
traveled  on  foot  except  when  rivers  were  encountered, 
when  the  birds  took  wing  and  crossed  the  expanse  of 
water  in  flight,  resuming  the  march  upon  the  other 
side.  At  nightfall,  they  ascended  to  the  trees  and 
roosted  until  daybreak,  beginning  the  journey  again 
the  following  morning.  When  suitable  feeding  ground 
was  secured,  the  flocks  spent  the  winter  roaming  about 
and  fattening  on  the  nuts  and  berries  which  formed 
their  winter  food.  At  such  times,  they  appeared  to 
become  somewhat  fearless  of  man  and  often  associated 
with  the  domestic  fowls  about  the  farm  houses.  In 
recent  times,  the  flocking  instincts  of  the  species  re- 
main the  same  but  the  migratory  habits  are,  of  neces- 
sity, restricted. 

About  the  middle  of  February  or  in  early  March, 
the  mating  instincts  of  the  Wild  Turkey  are  aroused 
and  the  selection  of  sexes  is  begun.  The  males  are 
quite  polygamous,  although  the  females  are  constant 
to  a  single  mate.  At  this  season,  the  "gobblers"  strut 
about,  gobbling  and  puffing,  ruffling  their  feathers  and 
dragging  their  wings,  performing  in  every  way  like 

[80] 


The  Wild  Turkey  9 

their  barnyard  counterparts  to  attract  the  attention  of 
the  females.  Rival  suitors  frequently  engage  in  bloody 
combats  which,  on  rare  occasions,  may  result  in  the 
death  of  one  of  the  contestants.  The  hens,  when  they 
bestow  their  affections,  join  the  following  of  the  suc- 
cessful suitor  and  remain  more  or  less  in  his  company 
until  the  actual  time  of  nesting  begins. 

The  nesting  of  the  Wild  Turkey  begins  in  the  mid- 
dle of  March  or  April.  The  hen  selects  a  site  at  the 
foot  of  a  tree  or  log,  or  under  the  bushes,  well  con- 
cealed from  casual  observation,  and  there  scoops  out 
a  shallow  depression  which  is  lined  with  dead  leaves. 
The  "gobbler"  renders  no  assistance  at  this  task.  The 
site  is  chosen  for  its  dryness  as  well  as  for  its  secrecy, 
and  secrecy  marks  all  the  operations  in  connection  with 
it.  Islands  are  frequently  chosen  in  this  regard,  for 
not  only  are  they  less  open  to  investigation  but,  in  ad- 
dition, there  is  often  present  a  considerable  pile  of 
driftwood  at  the  upper  end,  into  which  the  hen  may 
make  her  stealthy  way  when  discovery  is  imminent. 

The  eggs  number  from  8  to  15,  sometimes  20,  and 
measure  about  2l/3  by  lj£  inches.  In  color,  they  vary 
from  pale  creamy  white  to  buff,  dotted  and  spotted 
with  pale  chocolate  or  reddish  brown,  rarely  with  li- 
lac. Sometimes  several  females  occupy  the  same  nest 
and  sit  together,  possibly  for  mutual  protection.  Au- 
dubon records  the  discovery  of  such  a  communal  nest 
which  contained  42  eggs.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  hens 
nest  separately.  Incubation  occupies  about  four  weeks. 
During  that  time  the  hen  sits  closely,  not  moving  when 
approached  as  long  as  she  considers  herself  unob- 
served. Should  casual  notice  quicken  into  interest,  she 
is  able  to  detect  the  change  and  escapes  hurriedly  to 
a  little  distance  from  which  she  watches  the  proceed- 
ings. When  leaving  the  nest  deliberately,  she  never 
fails  to  cover  the  eggs  most  carefully  with  dry  leaves 

[81] 


10  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

to  hide  them  from  discovery.  If  the  nest  is  disturbed 
during  her  absence,  she  does  not  usually  desert  it  un- 
less some  of  the  eggs  are  broken  or  destroyed.  In  such 
case,  she  abandons  the  nest,  calls  for  her  mate,  con- 
structs another  nest  and  again  attempts  to  rear  a 
brood.  Otherwise,  only  one  brood  is  reared  each  year, 
at  least  in  the  northern  regions,  and  the  hen  does  not 
associate  with  the  "gobbler"  until  the  following  spring. 

When  the  young  are  about  to  hatch,  the  female, 
according  to  Audubon,  will  not  leave  the  nest  under 
any  circumstances.  The  young  are  active  and  leave 
the  nest  the  same  day  they  are  hatched.  That  day  or 
the  next,  they  begin  their  wandering  existence  and 
never  return.  They  are  somewhat  delicate  at  first, 
unusually  susceptible  to  dampness  under  foot,  and  for 
this  reason  are  carefully  tended  by  the  mother  bird 
and  led,  as  soon  as  may  be,  to  higher,  drier  ground. 
When  two  weeks  old,  they  are  able  to  fly  sufficiently  to 
reach  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees,  and  from  that 
time  on  they  roost  above  ground.  As  they  grow  older 
they  wander  more  widely  and,  little  by  little,  assemble 
into  the  mixed  family  groups  which  associate  for  the 
winter.  During  this  time,  as  soon  as  the  females  have 
withdrawn  into  seclusion  to  brood  and  rear  their 
young,  the  gobblers  retire  for  a  period  of  rest  and 
recuperation.  In  late  summer  they  also  begin  to  as- 
semble in  flocks.  Sometimes  they  are  joined,  in  late 
winter,  by  an  occasional  young  male,  but  the  associ- 
ation does  not  seem  to  continue  for  any  great  length 
of  time  and  the  younger  bird  goes  off  by  itself  or  re- 
joins the  family  group. 

The  food  of  the  Wild  Turkey  consists  largely  of 
wild  fruits  and  berries,  nuts,  acorns,  herbs  and  grass, 
many  kinds  of  insects,  and  even  frogs  and  small  liz- 
ards. Grasshoppers  are  a  favorite  article  of  diet  with 
the  half -grown  young,  and  corn  and  other  grains  with 

[82] 


The  Wild  Turkey  11 

the  old  birds.  A  thorough  study  of  the  stomachs  of 
Wild  Turkeys  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  shows  some  inter- 
esting facts  relative  to  the  food  of  this  species.  The 
general  conclusions  reached  by  the  study  are  that  the 
Wild  Turkey  should  be  considered  as  beneficial  rather 
than  injurious,  although  the  rarity  of  the  birds  is  such 
that  the  actual  effect  of  their  activities  is  negligible. 
Owing  to  the  fondness  of  turkeys  for  swampy 
bottomlands  and  for  roosting  over  water,  they  some- 
times find  themselves  cut  off  from  solid  ground 
through  inundation.  At  such  times  they  may  be 
forced  to  remain  in  the  tree-tops  for  days  or  even 
weeks,  subsisting  only  on  buds  and  leaves.  This 
works  no  hardship  with  them  at  certain  seasons,  but 
at  other  times,  they  may  become  very  emaciated  be- 
fore their  enforced  imprisonment  is  at  an  end. 

The  Wild  Turkey  is  beset  throughout  its  lifetime 
by  a  host  of  enemies.  Wolves,  foxes,  raccoons,  opos- 
sums, skunks  and  rats,  among  the  mammals,  prey 
upon  the  birds  according  to  their  size,  and  rob  the 
nests  whenever  they  find  them  deserted  or  can  drive 
away  the  occupants.  Among  the  birds,  the  crow  de- 
stroys the  eggs  and,  sometimes,  the  young  birds, 
while  certain  hawks  and  eagles  and  the  Great  Horned 
Owl  attack  the  half  grown  young  and  even  the  full 
grown  individuals.  The  Great  Horned  Owl  is  said 
to  rouse  the  sleeping  turkeys  by  its  call  and,  selecting 
a  victim,  crowd  it  off  its  perch  until  the  bird  takes 
wing,  whereupon  it  follows  in  pursuit  and  captures 
it  in  flight. 

In  its  relations  with  man,  the  Wild  Turkey  has 
suffered  more  than  in  contact  with  any  other  of  its 
foes.  From  the  earliest  times  in  its  history,  it 
has  been  not  only  an  article  of  food  but  an  ob- 
ject of  the  chase,  and  many  are  the  devices  and  meth- 

[83] 


12  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

ods  used  in  its  pursuit.  It  is  probably  due  to  some 
of  these  methods  that  the  species  has  been  obliged  to 
leave  many  of  its  former  haunts.  At  any  rate,  hunt- 
ing by  the  white  man  rapidly  effected  a  change  in  the 
habits  of  the  bird.  At  one  time  not  unduly  suspicious 
or  shy,  it  soon  developed  traits  which  made  it  one  of 
the  most  difficult  of  game  birds  to  approach  by  ordi- 
nary means.  The  early  writers  often  speak  of  the 
Wild  Turkey  as  being,  at  times,  even  stupid,  but  great- 
er familiarity  with  the  white  man's  ways  taught  the 
birds  to  be  more  cunning,  and  Audubon,  as  early  as 
1831,  described  them  as  extremely  shy  and  suspicious 
of  both  white  man  and  red. 

Perhaps  the  principal  agency  in  wholesale  destruc- 
tion was  the  trap.  By  its  use,  large  numbers  of  Wild 
Turkeys  could  be  secured  without  difficulty  and  with- 
out particular  knowledge  or  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
hunter.  The  traps  were  simple,  penned  enclosures, 
often  built  of  logs,  having  as  entrance  a  slightly  lifted 
rail  or  a  shallow  trench  beneath  one  side  of  the  struc- 
ture. Through  the  opening  was  laid  a  trail  of  corn. 
The  turkeys,  feeding  head  downward,  squeezed 
through  the  opening  and  into  the  trap,  but  once  inside, 
with  heads  upraised,  they  endeavored  only  to  escape 
above  and,  except  by  accident,  could  not  find  their  way 
through  the  opening  which  gave  them  entrance. 

Shooting  the  roosting  birds  by  moonlight  was 
often  practiced,  and  required  some  skill  with  the  rifle, 
as  the  game  invariably  roosted  high.  Coursing  with 
greyhounds  offered  sport  to  another  class  of  hunters 
and  gave  a  certain  amount  of  excitement  since  the 
birds,  while  fresh,  could  outrun  the  dogs  or  horses. 
If  followed  persistently,  however,  they  were  soon  ob- 
liged to  stop,  exhausted,  or  were  driven  to  short  and 
shorter  flights  until  overcome.  If  pressed  too  closely 
at  the  start,  their  usual  course  was  to  take  flight  to  a 

[84] 


The  Wild  Turkey  13 

distant  grove  without  attempting  to  run.  Coursing 
was  practicable  only  when  the  birds  had  wandered 
from  the  woods  to  feed  on  the  outlying  prairie. 

Stalking  or  still-hunting  was  yet  another  method 
of  turkey  hunting  much  in  favor.  It  was  necessary  to 
use  extreme  caution  in  approach,  not  to  set  the  birds 
to  running.  When  approached  quietly,  the  turkeys 
could  be  seen  at  some  distance,  with  their  heads  above 
the  undergrowth,  and  so  picked  off  with  a  rifle.  If 
stalked  very  closely  before  discovering  the  hunter,  they 
crouched  low  and  rose  suddenly,  offering  a  chance  for 
a  wing  shot.  Tracking  in  the  snow  sometimes  afforded 
an  easy  method  of  following  up  the  flocks. 

One  of  the  favorite  methods  of  hunting  the  Wild 
Turkey  has  been  that  of  "calling."  By  the  use  of  a 
hollow  wing  bone  of  a  turkey,  a  joint  of  cane,  a  leaf 
placed  against  the  lips  or  a  sharp-edged  wooden  box 
with  a  piece  of  slate  for  a  scraper,  the  various  notes 
of  the  "gobblers"  or  hens  can  be  imitated  with  more  or 
less  accuracy,  depending  on  the  skill  of  the  hunter. 
The  latter,  concealed  in  some  suitable  spot,  calls  up 
the  birds  and  shoots  them  as  they  appear.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  be  exact  in  the  imitation,  for  the  turkey  is  able 
to  detect  false  notes  and  imperfections  in  the  counter- 
feit voice,  and  either  will  not  respond  or  may  take 
alarm.  Furthermore,  a  knowledge  of  "turkey  talk"  is 
also  essential  for  the  best  results,  so  that  the  proper 
call  can  be  used.  Each  variety  of  turkey  notes  has  a 
different  significance,  and  the  calls  of  the  hens  and 
young  males  are  distinguishable  from  those  of  the  old 
"gobblers".  Hence  the  hunter  must  vary  his  perform- 
ance according  to  season  and  circumstance.  A  young 
male  may  not  respond  to  a  hen's  call  note,  nor  will  a 
1  'gobbler' '  reply  to  a  young  male.  The  method  of  calling 
probably  requires  more  patience,  skill  and  turkey  lore 
than  any  other  of  the  hunting  practices. 

[85] 


14         •  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 

There  seem  to  have  been  few,  if  any,  attempts  to 
re-introduce  the  Wild  Turkey  as  a  game  bird  into  any 
of  its  former  haunts.  The  disappearance  of  the  species 
from  these  localities  has  been  due  largely  to  the  dim- 
inution of  suitable  ranges  for  the  birds  and  the  un- 
favorable conditions  still  remain.  Areas,  formerly  in 
virgin  woodland,  have  been  broken  up  and  deforested, 
and  the  solitudes  have  been  shattered  by  the  automo- 
bile and  the  ubiquitous  camper-tourist.  With  the  pass- 
ing of  the  wilderness,  the  Wild  Turkey  has  quietly  re- 
tired to  those  less  inhabited  regions  where  it  can  still 
enjoy  undisturbed  seclusion  and  wander  at  will. 

Several  efforts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the 
species  outside  of  its  former  range.  In  California,  for 
example,  on  various  occasions  dating  back  to  1877, 
Wild  Turkeys  have  been  taken  from  Mexico  and  Vir- 
ginia and  released  on  certain  reservations,  but  most  of 
the  birds  have  disappeared  from  one  cause  or  another. 
A  few  flocks  are  reported  to  be  still  in  existence  in  the 
Sequoia  National  Park,  where  they  are  tame  and  fear- 
less. These  may  prosper  under  protection,  but  not  as 
game  birds  with  an  open  season  declared  upon  them. 
Likewise,  in  those  areas  where  the  Wild  Turkey  still 
exists  in  natural  condition,  it  may  not  hold  its  own  for 
all  time  so  long  as  there  are  seasons  for  hunting  it  and 
hunters  to  pursue  it.  Although  not  yet  extinct,  it  must 
be  classed  with  our  vanishing  game  birds, — in  the 
opinion  of  those  who  know  it  best,  the  noblest  of  them 
all. 

John  T.  Zimmer, 
Assistant  Curator  of  Birds. 


[86] 


The  Wild  Turkey  15 


BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  ABOUT  THE  WILD  TURKEY 

The  literature  dealing  with  the  Wild  Turkey  is  so  volum- 
inous that  it  is  impossible  to  quote  a  complete  bibliography.  A 
brief  list  is  here  given  of  a  few  of  the  more  detailed  accounts. 

Audubon,  John  James — The  Birds  of  America,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-17 

(Edinburgh,  1831),  and  other  editions. 

A  long  and  interesting  account  of  the  habits  of  the  Wild 
Turkey  at  a  time  when  it  was  considerably  more  abundant  than 
at  present. 

Bendire,  Charles  E. — Life  Histories  of  North  American  Birds 
(U.  S.  National  Museum,  Special  Bulletin  No.  1,  pp.  112- 
119,  1892). 
Accounts   of  various   observers  on  the  nesting  and   other 

habits  of  the  U.  S.  and  Mexican  Turkeys. 

Judd  Sylvester  D. — The  Grouse  and  Wild  Turkeys  of  the  U. 
S.  and  Their  Economic  Value,  pp.  48-52  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Biol.  Survey,  Bull.  24,  1905). 
A  study  of  the  food  habits  of  the  Wild  Turkeys  and  their 

allies,  based  on  examination  of  stomachs. 

King,  Major  W.  Ross — The  Sportsman  and  Naturalist  in  Can- 
ada, pp.  125-139    (London  1866). 

Gives  some  good  descriptions  of  turkey  habits  and  hunting 
in  Canada. 

McIlhenny,  Edward  A. — The  Wild  Turkey  and  Its  Hunting 
(New  York,  1914). 

An  interesting  book  dealing  entirely  with  the  Wild  Turkey 
and  its  ways. 

Wright,  Albert  Hazen — Early  Records  for  the  Wild  Turkey 
(Auk,  Vol.  31,  pp.  334-358  and  463-473;  Vol.  32,  pp.  61-81, 
207-224,  and  348-366,  1914-1915). 
A  synopsis  of  references  to  the  Wild  Turkey  in  literature, 

from  the  earliest  times  to  about  1870. 


The  Wild  Turkey  is  shown  in  a  handsome  group  in  Hall  20 
of  the  Field  Museum.  The  group  represents  a  winter  scene  in 
Madison  Parish,  western  Louisiana,  with  a  flock  of  fine  "gob- 
blers" in  the  open  woods,  strutting,  feeding  and  resting. 


[87] 


